How policies and procedures help children Essay Example for Free

How policies and procedures help children Essay Discuss how policies and procedures help children and young people and their families whilst the child is being looked after. In this essay I am going to discuss 6 policies and their procedures whist a child is being looked after. I am going to expand on why this is important for the child parent or legal guardian and also why they are put in place. Firstly I am going to discuss the Safeguarding Policy. Safeguarding Policy Safeguarding is the policy that describes the function of protecting adults and children from abuse or neglect. It is an important shared priority of many public services, and a key responsibility of local authorities.Safeguarding relates to the need to protect certain people who may be in vulnerable circumstances. These are people who may be at risk of abuse or neglect, due to the actions (or lack of action) of another person usually their parent or carer. In these cases, it is critical that services work together to identify people at risk, and put in place interventions to help prevent abuse or neglect, and to protect Safe guarding helps make sure the people whom are protecting the children are correctly checked for example a CRB is mandatory when looking after a vulnerable child. What is a DBS check and why is it needed? Since March 2002, the Criminal Records Bureau has enabled employers to check the criminal records of employees and potential employees, in order to ascertain whether or not they are suitable to work with vulnerable adults and children. For individuals working in certain positions, a valid DBS disclosure is a legislative requirement. The Disclosure and Barring Service also manage lists of individuals who are barred from working with children and adults. New safeguarding regulations introduced in October 2009 place an obligation on employers, social services and professional regulators to notify the DBS of relevant information. This obligation ensures that individuals who pose a threat to vulnerable groups can be barred from working with them. It also makes it a criminal offence for these individuals to apply to work with these groups and for employers to knowingly employ them. This makes sure the child is safe whilst being cared for by a  professional or a carer whom isnt their parent or legal guardian. It is also important so the parents or carers know the child is in safe hands whilst being cared for out of their control. Recording and Handling Information Policy Recording and handling data is important when looking after children for example whilst a child is in school all their documents must be kept confidential in case any of the other children or irrelevant staff members read or disclose any confidential information. The only time data or information about child should be revealed is if the child is at risk or in danger. Then the relevant person can inform the carer or relevant person to make sure the child is kept safe. Keeping childrens medical records safe is also important in case they ever need reviewed or used in case of emergency. Health and Safety Policy This policy promotes making sure the child is kept safe and in a safe environment for example there are a few policies put in place to make sure this is possible. They are RIDDOR  (Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations) This is an assessment that must be put in place and a report filed upon if a child is injured in school or any other official place of work. For parents or carers this makes sure it is dealt with and supported correctly it also keeps children safe. COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) This is similar to the RIDDOR policy I have expanded on above. All people taking care of the child must make sure all harmful substances are kept away from the child to prevent serious or injury or death. Risk Assessments. Risk assessments are carried out everywhere a child is looked after to make sure the environment and building is safe for the child to live or be taught in. This is a mandatory legal document especially in a school or care environment. This could put a parent or carers mind at risk knowing there child is safe. Health Policy It is a legal requirement that all children must get free healthcare throughout their childhood and adolescent life if needed for example medical care, dentistry care and mental support if needed. This helps support the child so they can stay healthy and get the right support they need. It also helps the parent so they don’t need to worry about the financial side as all this support is free. Education Policy Education is mandatory until you are 18 as of 2012. This is so children don’t fall out of education at 16. You can go down many routes when leaving school for example college, sixth form, training or apprentiships. There is also a legal standard of education in the United Kingdom that must be followed, there are 224 policies within 1 policy itself for education ranging from Reducing violent and gun crime to Reforming qualifications and the curriculum to better prepare pupils for life after school. Having policies in place makes sure that children get the right standard of education and that parents and carers can go out to work whilst their children are at school to make sure they can give their children the best standard of life. It also sets the child up for a good standard of life with good qualifications and life skills. Play Policy When children are in education especially primary school it is a legal requirement that they get break time and toys and equipment to use during this time. The best way for a child to learn is using exploratory learning and learning by trial and error. This is how a child learns life and social skills from a young age. When a child starts school this also gets them well adjusted to letting go from spending all their time with there parent or carer. Every Child Matters 1 Be Healthy 2 Stay Safe 3 Enjoy and Achieve 4 Make a Positive Contribution 5 Achieve Economic Wellbeing I believe that all they above policies shape a childs life and with the right guidance from parents, carers and education you can shape a decent outcome and setup for a childs life and development. Refrences. http://www.every-child-matters.org.uk/Framework_5_key_outcomes http://www.theguardian.com/politics/education http://www.playengland.org.uk/resources/national-play-policy.aspx https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-and-safety-advice-for-school https://www.gov.uk/disclosure-barring-service-check/overview

Nursing Information Systems Survey

Nursing Information Systems Survey Study of Nursing Information Systems (NIS) in teaching hospital of Zahedan University of Medical Sciences Leila Erfannial Msc1,Yousef Mehdipour PhD 1,Afsaneh Karimi Msc 1,Ayeshe Zarei Bs 1,Nahid Mehrabi Msc 2 ABSTRACT Purpose: Nurses are one of the biggest providers in health industry that effect directly on health service quality and outcomes. Nurses need correct information in correct time to have an effective service for patient and other member of health society. Nursing information system (NIS) is subsystem of hospital information system that can help nurse to have better performances. The main goal of this study is evaluation of nursing information system in teaching hospital of Zahedan according standard criteria. Materials and Methods: This research is based on a descriptive – cross sectional study that has done on 2013.Nursing information system of 4 teaching hospital in Zahedan were evaluated. For data gathering, we use a checklist that its reliability and validity was verified. Results: According our result, NIS of our study has met 42.19% of priority in general scopes, 72.33% for nursing data set, none of them had classification system standards. They had 45% of nursing data register priorities and 61.12% of report requirement was met. Conclusion: According our system weakness in general aspects, data register and data classification, we propose educational package such as workshops, classes and bulletin for nurses in hospitals toward optimal using of NIS. In other hand , provide nurses with enough hardware requirements , management supervision on using system , provide NIS systems by nursing classification standards and contribution of nurses in selection and implementation of this system is suggested. Keywords: nursing information system; hospital information system; nurse INTRODUCTION There is an increasing growth in information production in different sciences and theqnics, so the management of these volumes of information is very difficult. Information technology is a useful tool for management and useful application of this information. Health industry has faced with increasing rate of information generation that are multiple and complicated in nature1. So health information technology can help this high-demanded industry to manage information. Health information systems are some kinds of tools that integrate and communicate patient data and information and also can process the data and make some new information2. Nurses are one of the biggest providers in health industry that effect directly on health service quality and outcomes. Nurses need correct information in correct time to have an effective service for patient and other member of health society3. Nursing information system (NIS) are subsystem of hospital information system that can help nurse to have better performances, more nursing knowledge and make available data and information for nurses to have a role in health policy making and also decision making around health society and patients4. Furthermore, NIS can participate in hospital information process so lead to a better communication between health care team in hospital 5 . Margaretconclude that using NIS in hospital has a positive effect on information quality that provide by nurses6 .Ammenwerth state that NIS lead to better and more complete documentation of patient information and also better quality of information process5 .Toolabi in her study conclude that optimization of hospital information system would lead to a significant progress in nursing care average and better communication between nurses , patient and health care team and consequently patient more truth to health system ,health services and nurses, more patient family satisfaction and at the end , decrease patient claims7. Zahedan, the capital city of a province in southeast of Iran uses hospital information system in teaching hospital. Nursing information system is one this system module that use in these hospitals. So the basic objective of this study is to evaluate Nursing information system according standard indexes in four sections: general specification of systems, nursing data set , nursing nomenclature and classification specification , documentation registration and reporting specification of systems. MATERIALS AND METHODS This research is based on a descriptive – cross sectional study that has done on 2013.nursing information system of 4 teaching hospital in Zahedan were evaluated. For data gathering, we use a checklist that its reliability and validity was verified. Checklist has 5 section at whole: section 1 has some questions about the system, vendor and some general information about NIS module, section 2 was about general specification of nursing information system. The questions has two answers yes or no.this section involve 23 question about patient care process,11 about ward management process, 10 about communication process and 1 question research and education process.in section 3 , we have some questions about nursing data set that involve 5 question about nursing care data specification, 15 about patient data specification and 14 about service providing data specifications. Section 4 has some question about nursing nomenclature and classification data specification with 25 questions and in section 5 nursing data, registration and reporting requirements were evaluated by 6 questions about personnelreport, 14 questions about clinical report and 3 about financial report. The researchers attended in hospitals and by deep interviewing and also direct observation of systems, gather information and register in checklists. Supervisor of hospital, health information technologist and some professional nurse who uses NIS and familiar with the potential of system was interviewed; furthermore, during interview the researchers can observe the NIS and its functions. After gathering information, we use descriptive statistics to analysis our data by using Excel 2010 tables. RESULTS According our study, general specification of our NIS was evaluated in 5 aspects and 4 hospitals.(table 1) At whole, the frequency of patient care process data specification was 44/56%, ward management data specification was 31.81%, communication process data specification 47.5% and education and research data specification was 50% in our society research. Nursing data set was evaluated in 4 aspects in 4 hospitals: nursing care data set , patient data set, service data set (table 2) According our study , nursing care data set specification was 40% , patient data set specification was 71.66% and service data set specification was 84%. None of our NIS , has nursing classification standards specification data. Data registration and reporting specification data was evaluated in 4 aspects.(table 3) DISCUSSION Information technology making a great service for nurses to perform their tasks8. According our result, by using NIS in all hospital, nurses can receive patient demographic data from admission,discharge,and transmission (ADT) system of hospitals and also can register of different request such as laboratory tests, radiology and pharmacy services. And also they can observe laboratory and radiology results. But none of NIS support nursing evidence based and alert variances from normal patterns. According Ammenwerthstudy, after using information systems, nurses report more quickly patient data documentation, better information monitoring and progress in patient information legibility5. Kossman state that electronic health record implementation in hospital lead to decrease inter-department communication and promote critical thinking between nurses9. Making electronic communication between different parts of hospital is one of the most important capabilities of hospital information systems. According our study, by using nursing information system, in all hospital, nurses can schedule the admission of patients in their wards. Nurses in hospitals can access to information in every place of hospital. In hospital Cand D , nurses can transmit all information by NIS when changing their shifts. According Hinsonstudy , using NIS would lead to the time increasethat nurses spend on patient direct care (10.66%) ,verbal communication 19.33% decrease and mean time for reviewing data 8.9% increase10. Standard NIS needs nursing concepts standards and nursing data standards3. Without unified nursing language , internal data integration and external connection of information would disappear when information are shared and also there would be some problem for clinical decision support.in other hand , nursing information are unstructured generally , so if we don’t use a standard unified language , the retrieval of information would be difficult11. Result of our study show that, none of NIS in Zahedan hospital use standard nursing classification. This issue is very similar to Ahmadi research, they suggest standard nursing classification system for standardization of nursing data and concept to facilities retrieval of information that register in nursing information system12. All NIS in our study, register patient demographic data , nursing diagnostic data and data about service provided by nurses can record ECG data.in hospital C and D , patient vital signs and input-output liquid balance data , can enter to the terminal near patient bed. Anderson state that a standard nursing data set should involve nursing diagnostic data , nursing intervention , nursing outcome and intensity of nursing services and declare , by using such standard data set , management of nursing service cost , supporting of resources that allocated to the nurses , nursing knowledge developed and at the end nursing nursing profession would be promoted13. Making different reports is one of basic management capability of nursing information system that can provide valuable information about personnel productivity, budget management and nursing workload management in different shifts14. In hospital A,B and D , NIS making schedule for personnelshifts. All NIS , can make clinical reports such as laboratory and pathology report and reports about admitted or discharged patients. In Ahmadi study, reporting specification data was met 20.4%,63.5% and 85.2% in personnel , clinical and financial reports4. CONCLUSION Nurses have a great role in health care systems so documentation of their services would be very easy by using nursing information system.so if we want to implement an effective NIS , at first , we should implement a powerful HIS as an infrastructure for any hospital ward subsystem. Nurses are the biggest group of NIS users , so nurses computer literature promotion , has an important role in success and acceptance of NIS. So educational workshop and classes for nurses in hospital would be helpful to make better utilization of nursing information system also increasing inter-hospital communication between nurses and health information technologist would have a helpful tool for transmitting professional knowledge between these groups. Using nurse’s knowledge and skills in all phase electronic system development and implementation and courage electronic health systems developer to use this knowledge in their production is an essential item for successfulness of NIS and systems li ke that. Since we don’t have any national nursing standard classification and nomenclature , prepare , provide an standard unified system according national requirements is another important factor for implementation and usage of NIS and at whole , establishment some professional workshop that has different different profession such as nursing , health information technology , policy making and so on , to start and monitored special effort about nursing information system requirement , development and implementation is very important. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to nurses and health information technologist of educational hospital affiliated to Zahedan University of medical sciences who kindly participated in this study. REFERENCES 1.Bitaraf E, Riazy G. comprehensive hospital information system. iranian ministry of health,care and education 2006. 2.Yoder-wise PS. Leading and Managing in Nursing. second ed: St. Louis: Mosby; 1999. 3.Organization PAH, Organization WH. BuildingStandard-BasedNursing Information Systems. Washington: PAHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data; 2000. 4.Ahmadi M, Habibi Koolaee M. Nursing Information Systems in Iran. HAKIM. 2010 5.Ammenwerth E, Rauchegger F, Ehlers F, Hirsch B, Schaubmayr C. Effect of a nursing information system on the quality of information processing in nursing: An evaluation study using the HIS-monitor instrument. International journal of medical informatics. 2011;80(1):25-38. 6.Verkerke M. Information Quality of a Nursing Information Systemdepends on the nurses: A combined quantitative andqualitative evaluation. international journal of medical informatics 2012;81:662–73. 7.Toolabi T, Vanaki Z, Memarian, improving hospital information system in cardial care unit, yafteh. 2012;14(5):83-92 8.Sadeghi R. Informatics applying in nursing; education, research and care. Iranian Quarterly of Education Strategies. 2012;5(3):199-206 9.Kossman SP. Perceptions of impact of electronic healthrecords on nurses’ work. healthtechnology information. 2006;122:337-41. 10.Hinson DK, Huether SE, Blaufuss JA, Neiswanger M, Tinker A, Meyer KJ, et al., editors. Measuring the impact of a clinical nursing information system on one nursing unit. Proceedings of the Annual Symposium onComputer Application in Medical Care; 1993: American Medical Informatics Association. 11.BowlesKH. the barriers and benefits of nursing information system. computer in nursing. 1997;15(4):191-6. 12.Ahmadi M, Rafiee F, Hosseini F, Habibi kolaee M. information and structure requirements for nursing data classification in computerized systems. hayat. 2011;17(1):16-23 13.Anderson B, Hannah KJ. A Canadian nursing minimum data set: a major priority. Canadian journal of nursing administration. 1992;6(2):7-13. 14.Sadoughi F, Ghazisaeid M, Mehraji M, Kimiafar Kh. health information management technology. first edition ed. Tehran: Jafari; 2011. Table1.frequency percentage of NIS general data specification in different hospital D C B A 17/52% 95/86% 73/21% 39/17% Patient care process 63/63% 36/36% 09/9% 18/18% Ward management process 50% 90% 30% 20% Communication process 100% 100% 0 0 Education and research process Table2.frequency percentage of nursing data set in different hospital. D C B A 60% 100% 0 0 Nursing care data set 60% 33/93% 60% 33/73% Patient data set 85/92% 57/78% 57/78% 71/85% Provided services data set Table3.frequency percentage of reporting data specification in different hospital. D C B A 33/33% 0 100% 33/83% Personnel report 71/85% 28/64% 28/64% 71/35% Clinical report 0 100% 100% 0 Financial report

The symbolism of rain in literature

The symbolism of rain in literature It has been seen that almost all authors use symbol within their works of literature in order to pull the attention of their readers. Using such symbolic concept it helps the poets in creating a secondary meaning. It also helps in connecting the gaps. Symbols need a careful analysis while in some circumstance it is quite clear. Water can be seen in many forms in literature including waterfalls, lakes, rivers, streams, or rain. The meaning of water symbol in literature can be taken in many ways. The most obvious are life, being born, purity, cleansing, or the washing away of sins. Water is very important to life and growth and it mainly appears as a birth and rebirth symbol. It is used in the baptism service which solemnizes spiritual births. Even the appearance of rain in the work of literature it suggests a spiritual birth. April is the cruellest month for the denizens of the modern wasteland, for it signifies rebirth and they prefer winter or spiritual death, for rebirth implies some efforts on their part and any spiritual effort is hateful to them. The spring rain brings new life to the landscape but all it manages to do is stirring/ dull roots. It suggests that nothing new will grow out of the symbolic wasteland. Through a protagonist named Tiresias, Eliot gives his impressions about the modern people. Tiresias has come across a German princess. She is fond of travel. She is an example of a rootless modern person. She has no connection with her family, community and nation. She is a kind of international globetrotter, fond of the physical comforts of life. Eliot considers such ties necessary for culture, for real life- spiritual and moral. The modern humanity, like German princess, lives entirely on the physical plane, and is entirely forgetful of religious and moral values. In winter, as they go through Munich they are overtaken by a shower of rain. They do not realize the purifying power of rain but rather seek shelter from it, as she is ignorant of its purifying and fertilizing significance. Shelly’s poem Cloud has treated rain in totally different manner. Rain which comes from cloud and it is supplied to the soil so that it regernate. Cloud become a gardener through rain it brings water to thirsty flowers as well as to the birds through the dew on the buds. It helps in harvesting the crops. Here rain is very significant while in the Eliot’s Wasteland people are unaware to the fertilizing power of rain. They try to save themselves with the showers of rain. In this lines the protagonist, Tiresias, then surveys the panorama of modern civilization and finds it spiritually barren and dead. The stones, dead trees, dry stones without any sound of water, all symbolize spiritual desolation. In the book 4 Paradise Lost by Milton Eve tells Adam about her first awakening and how she wondered when she come to know about her who she is and from where she came to life. She sees her image in to the lake through which she discovers herself as well as also aware that she is relative to Adam. Through the voice which she hears she come to know that she is the mother of the human race. Here Eve recognition looking in to the water symbolizes that Eve consciousness about her existence, the awareness of being born. We notice that when Tiresias surveys he finds nothing. But when Eve sees her image into the water she comes to know about her existence. The Tarot Pack of 78 cards, originally used in Egypt to foretell the rise of the Nile waters, and the return of fertility. But now the function of the pack has degenerated. It is used merely for fake fortune telling, an illegal activity. The Madame Sosostris is telling the fortunes of some client, who might be the protagonist himself. The drowned phoenician sailor is the symbol of the fertility god whose effigy was thrown into the river to symbolize the death of the summer. The drowned Phoenician sailor is related to the English myth of the Fisher King, whose wound causes the land to stop impregnate or regenerate. In this case he might represent the terrible curse that has fallen over Europe in the 20th century. The warning ‘fear death by water’ suggest that you need to avoid dying like the Phoenician sailor but it also true that fortune tellers are full of tricks you need to remember there is other way to â€Å"die by water.† So this warning refers to the spiritual drought which has fallen on the wasteland. In the poem of William Wordsworth The Prelude he describes water in the form of a lake, remembering a time when he was a young boy here it symbolize freedom and entrapment. Wordsworth recalls his time when he was a curious boy. In order to take a ride he borrows the boat of a shepherd one night. However, when he starts to row out into the lake he believes that he sees a cliff in the distance rise up in front of him, which petrifies him. Before this incident lake is described as a shining clear among the hoary mountains. A young boy slips his oars in the lake. The water seems peaceful and serene, begging to be rowed upon. Wordsworth enables to quell his desire to take the boat out for a ride. When Wordsworth witnesses the supernatural event into the lake he finds this place is no longer safe but rather fearful and wretched. His pleasurable ride becomes a panic stricken and he tries hard to make it back to land. The lake still peaceful and quite but a change has come in the attitude of Wordsworth. He tries to escape the water. The lake and ocean symbolize both freedom and entrapment. Wordsworth cannot row fast enough to escape the one peaceful lake. In the cases of both poem water is giving a kind of horrid experience. In one poem they are warning to fear from death by water while in other water is very calm and it is begging to be rowed upon by Wordsworth. But while rowing poet is full of fear which he experiences in the expedition on the lake. The lady asks the lover whether he knows anything, whether he sees anything, whether he remembers anything. The reply of the lover is that he remembers one line which is a quotation from Shakespeare’s The Tempest. This line is: â€Å"those are pearls, that were his eyes,† this line is reproduced mechanically by the lover. It has no spiritual significance for him. It does not give an idea of the transformation of man through death to something higher and nobler. This lines is taken from the William Shakespeare The Tempest,it refers to a person who drowned and has been underwater so long, his eyes has turned into pearls. It reminds the warning to avoid Death by water. Turning of eye symbolizes how the modern souls have become hard and lifeless. The hot water at ten. And if it rains, a closed car at four. And we shall play a game of chess, Pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock upon the door. (Eliot 134-137) It is a brief summary of the dull, meaningless routine of life in the wasteland. Waiting for some excitement, for something to happen, this will enliven for a moment the dull routine of their life. While in the poetry of John Donne we see how a poet is very sad when he has to leave his beloved. He shows much concern for his beloved. In the poem A valediction: of weeping by John Donne image of water is shown with the use of tear. In the beginning of the poem when he is departing from his beloved he does not embrace her before going. Instead of it he finds his beloved reflection in his tears. Their separation cannot separate them it is undeniable separation. Next he takes tears of his beloved both â€Å"fruit† and â€Å"emblem†. It is fruit of his pain because which he is enduring in his present time while it is an emblem of his future grief because he will be away. Further he says that as his tears falls his reflection will also fall. He and she will become nothing. When her reflection falls thus she vanishes as he departs for his sea voyage. Then the tears of the lovers are endlessly generative and endlessly decay. When we both cry our eyes will fill with tears, and we won’t be able to see each other anymore. It has been noticed that people of wasteland is also waiting for any kind amusement in their dull routine of life whereas in Donne poetry instead of waiting he is departing leaving behind his beloved. ‘If it rain’ symbolizes that waiting for spiritual birth or reborn while fading of reflection in tears symbolizes to lose spirituality. The section ‘The Fire Sermon’ opens with Tiresias surveying the Thames scene in the autumn. The leaves have fallen down and the wind moves without any rustle. The Thames is deserted. In the summer, it had been the haunt of nameless ladies in search of momentary pleasure, and the rich sons of business directors equally in need of pleasure. After having their round of pleasure, they have all left. The river is strewn all over with empty bottles, cigarette cases, papers, handkerchiefs, etc, the reminders of the orgy of pleasure on its banks. The protagonist mourns the pollution of the river water. As he sits on its banks fishing in the dull canal near the gas house, a cold wind blows. It brings to him the sound of the senseless laughter of London crowds who move about rattling like dried bones. Memories crowd in upon him, and he is reminded of bonnnivard in the prison of chillon in Byron’s famous poem, lamenting the loss of freedom on the banks of lakes leman; or the captive jews in the bible weeping by the river Babylon. Since he is the spokesman of humanity, one who has suffered all, one whose memories go to the remote past, the scene also reminds him of the brother of the fisher king, fishing for the regeneration of his brother and of Ferdinand, mourning the death of his father, the king. In the past water and fishing were the symbol of regeneration and transformation but today they have lost their spiritual significance. The poet now refers to another scene: fishing near the river. The poet tries to fish in the canal behind the gas house, where a rat creep near him. Instead of finding a fish, he comes across an ugly rat. This reminds him of the story of Ferdinand where the king was exiled by his brother who usurped his throne. The real king may be compared to a fish while the usurping king may be compared to a rat. Today the scene of the river bank is very depressing. White naked bodies can be seen on the buildings of the bank. They are disturbed by the rats to be found on the bank. Today the roads along the bank are full of motor cars; the hooting of the horns is a signal for Mrs. Porter to meet her lover Sweeney. The face of Mrs. Porter shines under the moon-light. She is accompanied by her daughter. They wash their feet not in the river water but in soda water. They are doing so not for their self purification but to make their flesh fairer to attract males. We find such is the degeneracy in the modern wasteland. If we read the poetry snake by D.H Lawrence we find water is essential for drinking purpose without it nobody can think of leave. Everyone in the past or in the present always talks about the preserving of water but in the modern wasteland it is used for making their skin fairer. They are wasting water. People do not bother about its purification. A snake came to my water-trough on a hot, hot day, I in pyjamas for the heat, to drink there. (Lawrence, 1) In the beginning lines of DH Lawrence poem, the water symbolizes as a drinking water. As we know that when water come into the mouth of snake it transforms in a poison. A snake comes to water trough in order to drink water. The poet finds himself in a queu in which he has second number before him a snake which come as guest. The poet watches the yellow brown soft bellied snake at his water trough. It is drinking softly through its gums silently. While the poet is watching the snake drinking water snake lifts his head and looks at the poet vaguely, flickers his two forked tongue from his lips, take pause a moment and then drink a little more. With the sound of music in his ears, Tiresias goes along the strand and queen Victoria Street, and reaches the lower end of Thames Street. This is the part of the city where the poor live. There he hears, coming out of a tavern, the sweet music of a mandolin, and the chanter of fishermen and sailors who are resting in the tavern. There stands the church of St. Magus Martyr, the interior decoration of which is highly praised by Eliot. However, this haunt of the poor is also not pure from sexual perversion and sin as is brought out by the songs of the three Thames daughters, i.e., these poor girls living on the banks of the river. First the three sing together and then separately. They bemoan the polluting of river water symbolized by the oozing out of oil and tar. The river which is river Thames, sweating oil and tar, symbolizes the modern commercial pollution of the waters of the river. In Mattew Arnold poem Dover Beach, he is obsessed with water. It is constantly referred throughout the poem. Water symbolism has been treated like a sadness, misery and tears. It is clear to the very outset of the poem when he says the sea is calm; the tide is full; the straits of Dover look bright in the light of the moon; the cliffs loom large in the bay; the sand seems white because of moonlight. The poet draws the attention of his beloved to the sound of waves which alternatively advance and withdraw, carrying away pebbles from the beach each time they withdraw and throwing them up against the beach each time they advance. The poet finds a note of sadness in this sound. He recalls that of the Greek dramatist Sophocles also interpreted the sound of sea waves as sad. Sophocles, on hearing it, was reminded of tragedy of human life. The poet then points out that once upon a time the sea of religious faith was full, but now doubt and disbelief have combined to throw back the waves of faith from the world, leaving the world barren and cheerless. He means that religion has lost its hold upon the minds of people who have now become skeptical. The world has now become barren and men live in the darkness of ignorance, carrying on aimless struggle. The sea is everywhere in the poem Dover beach. It shows in different places and in different forms, but we feel its power all over the place. In the section ‘Death by water’ we see symbol in title. Water is the traditional symbol of purification and regeneration, but in the modern land of desolation it has lost its functions and has become a source of destruction. This is so because man has become beastly, given to the pursuit of wealth and sensuous pleasures. It is very similar to the poetry of The River by A.K Ramanujan. He is not praising river like the other poet mostly do instead of it he shows the flood which kills the inhabitant of the villagers like one pregnant women, Gopi and Brinda etc. The poet much concerns about the damage which the flood annually does to the people. The phoenician sailor; phlebas was young, tall and handsome, but he was drowned because his life was a sordid round of business activity and pleasure without any spiritual motivation. He was caught in a whirlpool and passed the various stages of his age and youth. The reference is to the ritual immersion of the effigy of the vegetation god, orisis, who was supposed to pass the various stages of life in the reverse order. He is old when he is immersed in water, he is young as rises and falls on the waves, then a boy, and is finally reborn. But there is no rebirth for the Phoenician sailor or modern humanity because of their moral degradation. The remedy lies in their being guided by moral and spiritual principles. At present they turn the wheel of life themselves, i.e, lead a life uncontrolled by spiritual considerations. Complete secularization and rejection of the supernal is at the root of the contemporary decay and disintegration. The influence of symbols in Indian literature als o A.K Ramanujan is a very famous poet of modern era. He has written a poem A River in which he has discussed about the flood which destroys everything. Through the symbol of river he describes about the havoc which is spread by flood. Here, in this poem water is a symbol of disaster and destruction. Madurai is a city of temples and poets. The poets living in this city write poems about cities and temples. Their poems also contain accounts of how every summer a river flowing through Madurai is reduced to a narrow stream and how; soon afterwards, it is flooded with the water of rains. When it is reduced to a narrow stream, its water cannot pass through the Watergates because of the piles of straw and women’s hair which obstruct its flow. The bridges over the river are marked with many patches of repair. Those stones of the bridges, which become wet, begin glisten, while the dry stones retain their original dull colour. The poets merely write poems about the floods in this river. A visitor once happened to spend one day in Madurai when a flood in the river was imminent. He heard people everywhere talking about the level of the water rising quickly. The people talked about the water rising over the steps leading to the river, and the water rising on the bathing places. He also heard people talking about the flood waters sweeping away three village homes, one pregnant woman, and a couple of cows, almost every year. Sailors himself cannot save from drowning in to the water as same to the villagers of Madurai. Both the poets at some extent have similar thought in order to show the destructive power of water. Last section ‘what the thunder said’â€Å"Here is no water, but only rock†, the reference is to the journey of sir Percival or Parsifal, the quester, to the kingdom of the fisher king in search of the holy grail. The knight and his followers reach the mountain on the top of which is the chapel perilous in which is kept the lost grail. There have been no rains for a long time, and it is a scene of desolation and barrenness which meets their eyes. There is no water at all and the rocks are cracked. There are gaps as in the in the mouth of an old man. There is not even silence, for there is the unpleasant noise of the wind passing through dried grass, the desert insects singing with a jarring sound, and the sound of thunder without rain. As the searchers climb the hill and near the chapel, they have hallucinations. Red ghostly figures seem to look out at them from mud cracked houses and mock and jeer at them. Such has been the experience of all those who have searche d for truth and spiritual salvation. The path of spiritualism is difficult and those who follow it often have such hallucinations. The repeated cry of â€Å"water, water† brings out vivdly the intensity of the suffering they have to undergo. The poet turns his back on the dead land and sits fishing on the shore of the river, i.e. he makes efforts at his spiritual re-generation.

Soliloquies Essay - A Powerful Soliloquy in Macbeth -- Macbeth essays

A Powerful Soliloquy in Macbeth The play ‘Macbeth’ uses soliloquies with great effect to express the thoughts of individual characters, particularly in the case of the protagonist, Macbeth. In Act V Scene V, strong words from Macbeth convey to the reader two themes of the play.   This soliloquy demonstrates the play's use of irony and the use of the disparity between the great opposition of light and darkness as symbols for both life and death.   This soliloquy is quite significant to the play as a whole since it demonstrates two very important themes as well as leading to a better understanding of Macbeth. Macbeth is talking to an officer, when hearing of his wife's demise his mood suddenly deepens into that of emptiness.   He begins a soliloquy and states a number of ironic things.   He states that life drags on, that it "creeps in this petty pace" when in reality the speed of his actions and the development of the play's plot are taking place at a great speed.   Furthermore he goes on to describe life as a "brief candle," thus communicating that life’s opposite; death must therefore be an eternal darkness.   Throughout the play, the character Macbeth has longed for death, perhaps so that he can be unleashed from his worldly pain and guilt. He goes... ...arkness, pain, and insignificant. Works Cited and Consulted: Biggins, Dennis. "Light and Darkness in Macbeth." Shakespeare Studies VII (1975) Gilligan, Carol. Irony in Macbeth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982 Kinney, Arthur F. ed. William Shakpespeare: the Tragedies. Boston: Hall and Company, 1985. Noble, Adrian. "At age 436, His Future is Unlimited." New York Times 23 Apr. 2000, late ed., sec. 2:5. Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Elements of Literature. Sixth ed. Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1997. "William Shakespeare." BBC Homepage. Online. Available . 26 Mar. 2004.

Habeas Corpus and the Use of Military Tribunals Essay -- American Hist

Habeas Corpus and the Use of Military Tribunals In America Under the Threat of Terrorism Introduction It was on this date one hundred forty two years ago (April 25, 1861), that President Abraham Lincoln sent a letter to Lt. General Winfield Scott authorizing the suspension of â€Å"The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus† . Lincoln had been president for less than two months and was facing, what was up to that time and arguably may still be the greatest threat to the survival of the United States since the Founding Fathers launched this â€Å"Great Experiment†. Only eleven days earlier Major Robert Anderson, the commander of the federal garrison at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, had to surrender the fort to the Confederate Army. Lincoln was reluctant to issue such an order but had done so as he faced the very real possibility that the Maryland legislature would convene and â€Å"[t]ake action to arm the people of that state against the people of the United States† . Thus began the first of several occasions in our nation’s history where a president when faced with a â€Å"clear and present danger† to our national security has had to balance fulfilling his oath to â€Å"[p]reserve, protect and defend the Constitution†¦Ã¢â‚¬  with the â€Å"privilege† to have any detainment reviewed by a judge or magistrate of competent jurisdiction. Problem Statement How far may law enforcement officials go in compromising civil liberties to enhance national security? What does the Constitution say with respect to the suspension of the civil liberties in times of national emergency? How has the U.S. Supreme Court interpreted the constitution with respect to the suspension of habeas corpus? Few citizens would disagree that national security is a legitimate function of government. First and foremost, our national government is responsible for the protection of life, then liberty. The most ardent champions of the Bill of Rights concede that it would be foolish to treat civil liberties as inviolable when the lives of innocent thousands are at stake. U.S. Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jackson, dissenting in a free speech case, gave these words of warning regarding civil liberties: â€Å"[T]he choice is not between order and liberty. It is between liberty with order and anarchy without either. There is danger that, if the Court does not temper its doctrinaire logic with a little practical wisdom, it will c... ...lue – Freedom. Or it can be an indictment of our fear if we abrogate the liberties so much cherished and so dearly paid for. Bibliography Rehnquist, William H. All the Laws But One, New York: Alfred P. Knopf, 1998 Black’s Law Dictionary. Abridged Seventh Ed., p. 569, West Group, St. Paul, MN (2000) Garret, Buck "The Unconstitutionality of Time Limits Placed on The Great Writ," Prisoner of War in America - http://www.nov.org/garret.May97.htm Rembar, Charles. The Law of the Land: The Evolution of Our Legal System, pp.141 -156, Simon and Schuster, New York, (1981) Kleinfeld, Joshua. "The Union Lincoln Made", p. 24, History Today, Vol. 47, Nov 1997. Authorities and Cases Cited U.S. Constitution, Article 1,  § 9 Terminiello v. Chicago, 337 U.S. 1 (1949) Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2 (1866) Ex Parte Quiran, 317 U.S. 1 (1942) Ashcroft, John. Statement to the Press re: The Capture of Jose Padilla, July 10, 2002 Padilla v. Bush, et al., 233 F. Supp. 2d 564 (S.D.N.Y. 2002) Padilla v. Rumsfeld. 233 F. Supp. 2d 564, No. 02 Civ. 4445, 2003 U.S. Dist. (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 11, 2003) Padilla v. Rumsfeld. 233 F. Supp. 2d 564, No. 02 Civ. 4445, 2003 U.S. Dist. (S.D.N.Y. Apr.9, 2003)

Every Child Matters

There is no duty more important than ensuring that children’s rights are respected, that their welfare is protected, that their lives are free from fear and that they can grow up in peace. Kofi Annan, the 7th Secretary-General of the United Nations The aim of this paper is to review and critically analyse the Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003) framework as well as to discuss the impact of Every Child Matters agenda on a specific role within an educational setting.For this purpose, information was gathered through elements of practitioner-based research and observations along with the study and analysis of materials presented in books, research journals and professional publications, so as to evaluate the main aspects of the policy Every Child Matters and identify the issues it has raised for professionals working with young children, and particularly early years practitioners, as well as to propose some strategies that could support those practitioners throughout the process of inevitable changes associated with the introduction of the policy.In 2003, the Government launched Every Child Matters, a comprehensive programme of reform for children’s services with wide-reaching implications for education, health, social services, voluntary and community organisations, and other agencies. Every Child Matters constituted the Government’s policy response to the findings and recommendations of Lord Laming’s Inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbie, the young girl who died as the result of severe physical abuse and neglect in her family. It was published as a Green Paper for consultation on September 2003.Its proposals have since been further developed in subsequent documents including Every Child Matters; Next Steps and Every Child Matters; Change for Children. Many of the reforms proposed in Every Child Matters—including the establishment of a Children’s Commissioner for England—required amendments to statute. Consequent ly, a Children Bill was presented to Parliament in March 2004 and subsequently received royal assent on 15 November 2004. The Children Act 2004, as it now is, provides the legal ‘backbone’ for the programme of reform. House of Lords and House of Commons, 2005) The proposals of the Government for reforming children’s services aimed to combine the development of an overall framework for universal children’s services with the need for targeted services to protect vulnerable children. The framework has introduced five outcomes for children’s services as being of key importance during childhood and adult life: being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a positive contribution; achieving economic well-being.As Benton, Chamberlain and Rutt (2003: 30) point out, Thirty-nine quantitative indicators have been identified relating to these outcomes. For example, one of the key indicators of children being healthy is the infant mortality rate, w hereas achieving economic well-being might be partially assessed by the percentage of young people accessing FE and training after completing compulsory schooling. Each of the 150 local authority areas can be assessed using any of these indicators that are available at the local level.The research (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2004; Williams, 2004; Roche and Tucker, 2007) suggests that the introduction of the quantitative indicators along with other expectations of the Every Child Matters agenda has transformed the educational landscape in recent years. The need for effective and coherent multi-agency working has become apparent, and that was not just to ensure that abused children like Victoria Climbie no longer fall through the net, but also to bring together health, social care and education services for collaboration in the interests of all children and with effective provision at all levels.It is worth to mention that the story behind the development of the Every Child Matters sti ll presents â€Å"uncomfortable reading† (Roche and Tucker, 2007: 213) for politicians, children’s service managers, practitioners and academics alike due to the fact that the Every Child Matters framework emerged out of the tragic circumstances surrounding the death of Victoria Climbie as well as many other child abuse inquiries.The study suggests that Every Child Matters has indicated the emergence of the notions of â€Å"a child† and â€Å"childhood† as the central subjects in New Labour’s social policy. Recently Gordon Brown declared: â€Å"Nothing is more important to the future of our whole country than that, with the best schooling, services and financial support, every child has the chance to develop their potential. † (Guardian, 2003: 19) Similarly, former Prime Minister Tony Blair stated: â€Å"For most parents, our children are everything to us: our hopes, our ambitions, our future. (DfES, 2003: 1) The above claims suggest that c hildren today are no longer seen as incomplete adults not yet able to participate in social life, but as â€Å"co-constructors of childhood and society† (Qvortrup, 1994: 14) In the same context, Moss and Petrie (2002: 40), talk about it being â€Å"time to welcome children as young citizens, equal stakeholders with adults† and state that â€Å"the child has a voice to be listened to† (ibid: 101).However, it is important to acknowledge that this notion of childhood does not seem to be the only one that shapes the status of children in the sphere of political and economic priorities. Tomplinson (2008) uses an example of Home Office activity linked to the Anti-Social Behaviour Order (ASBO), which is being used to restrain children and make information about them public within their communities. According to Walker (2008: 149), â€Å"ten young people a week are being jailed as a result of ASBOs†.This activity is in clear contrast to the aims of Every Child Ma tters, one of which is â€Å"to minimise the use of custody† (DfES, 2004: 3) Prout (cited in Jones et al, 2008: 29) explains that â€Å"public debate swings between children as victims, in need of protection from harm, and children as threat to social order coming from problem families producing unruly and uncontrolled children. † The study also suggests that Every Child Matters possibly does not put enough emphasis on the importance of children’s participation and respecting of children’s opinions.Some acknowledgement of those issues is evident in Paragraph 1. 13 of the document, which states some factors that foster children’s resilience against disadvantage: Strong relationships with parents, family and other significant adults Parental interest and involvement in education with clear and high expectations Positive role models Individual characteristics such as an outgoing nature, self-motivation, intelligence Active involvement in family, schoo l and community life Recognition, praise and feeling valued† (DfES, 2003: paragraph 1. 3) Paragraph 5. 47 also mentions â€Å"Involving children in developing services† (DfES, 2003: paragraph 5. 47) As Williams (2004) rightly points out, the Every Child Matters framework refers to children’s consultation only twice. The first reference is in setting out its outcomes: â€Å"When we consulted with children, young people and families they wanted the Government to set out the aims in terms of a positive vision of what as a society we want to achieve for our children† (DfES, 2003: paragraph 1. 2).The themes of staying safe and enjoying and achieving are reinforced by the second reference to children’s opinions, when â€Å"somewhere safe to go and something to do† is mentioned in relation to the need for recreational activities (DfES, 2003: paragraph 2. 39). The study also revealed that, surprisingly, the theme of â€Å"enjoying† is hardly d eveloped in the framework. The section â€Å"Enjoying and Achieving† focuses mainly on educational achievement without taking into the consideration the fact that â€Å"enjoyment† was the main theme that came from children.Not only does it give the impression that children’s views are not very important but it also characterizes a rather dreary vision of childhood which is about getting through your exams and keeping out of trouble. This registers more about the processes of becoming an adult rather than the active enjoyment and negotiation of childhood and young personhood with friends and siblings. (Williams, 2004: 412) In addition to criticism towards the lack of emphasis on children’s participation, the study also revealed that there are some points of tension in the Every Child Matters document which reflect a weak framework of values.Walker (2008) expresses concern regarding the fact that no advice is given in the document to the agencies on how to cooperate together effectively and how to overcome difficulties and barriers, especially when it comes to a clash of different values. Williams (2004) shares this concern, arguing that while the document opens up new possibilities for the way society can transform the lives of children and their parents, it also, at the same time, closes these off due to its failure to be much more explicit about its vision and its values: There is an underestimation f the need for services and policies to underpin both trust and respect, and for strategies that can build consensus around such values. To some extent a case is put in the Introduction to the Every Child Matters: ‘Underpinning this must be not just the resources but an attitude that reflects the value that our society places on children and childhood’. But the values that might support a change in attitude are not spelled out. (ibid: 410)Nevertheless, despite the mentioned concerns about the conflicting nature of some serv ices and a failure to offer effective legislation in ways that will work for all children and families, it should be noted that the introduction of Every Child Matters and the legislation to support its implementation should be viewed as a staging post (my emphasis) for a government that is on a significant journey of reform for child-related policy and practice (Parton, 2005).The study suggests that the Every Child Matters agenda raised a number of important issues within the roles of all professional involved in children’s and young people’s services, including teachers and practitioners of early years childcare and educational settings. One of the main issues is related to the introduction of multi-agency approach, which encourages professionals to work in multi-disciplinary teams based in schools and Children’s Centres.An early manifestation of multidisciplinary approaches to work could be seen in relation to the rapid development of early years provision. T he mandatory introduction of Early Years Development and Childcare Partnerships (EYDCP) in every local authority area clearly signalled the intention of the Government to build multi-agency working relationships across the public, private and voluntary sectors that would encompass education, social care and health.Crucially, the local education authority was given the lead role in bringing together related agencies â€Å"to draw up an annual local plan, linked together into the Government’s targets for early education places for 3- and 4-year-olds and the expansion of childcare† (Pugh, 2001: 15). Following the Every Child Matters agenda on integrated multi-agency approach put an obligation on early years practitioners to restructure and refocus their roles. The agenda for safeguarding children based on integrated pproach had to be carefully reviewed from the perspective of all those working with young children. While the traditional protection functions remained the sa me (looking for signs of abuse, reporting suspicion of abuse, etc. ), the other functions, specifically related to multi-agency involvement, had to be introduced, such as involvement in common assessment process, sharing and analysing information, reviewing outcomes for the children against specific plans.Within such a perspective the practitioners based at an early years setting have become central figures in developing services for socially excluded children and families and those who are considered to be at risk. The contribution of these practitioners has been viewed as vital, as it is argued that â€Å"health, education and social services all have an important role to play in improving and safe-guarding the well-being of vulnerable children and their families† (Abbott et al. , 2005: 230). However, Abbott et al. ibid) also note that there have been difficulties in promoting the vision of multidisciplinary working across organizations, and go further in their criticisms, arguing that there is a â€Å"lack of evidence to support the notion that multi-agency working in practice brings about benefits for children and families†. (Abbott et al, 2005: 23) The introduction of multi-agency multi-disciplinary approaches also is having an impact on the practitioners working with older age groups of children. The changes in those practitioners’ job roles are mainly related to the issue of developing extended schools.According to research conducted by Cummings et al. (2003) specific grounds for the development of extended schools appear to be emerging, however the evaluation of the extended schools revealed that there is no single model of the extended school, and there is considerable variation between the existing models depending on community need, geography and access to funding. The ‘full-service’ school in which services are located on the school site is less common, though many schools are working towards this (ibid). The chall enge to those working in extended schools to deliver effective practice seems to be considerable.The study suggests that, perhaps, the greatest challenge lies in the area of changing the culture of some schools. Smith (2005) supports the idea that multidisciplinary work challenges the isolated position of many schools: â€Å"where schools have had to work with other agencies their relative size, statutory nature and high degree of control over what happens within their walls have often made them difficult partners† (ibid: 13). Clearly, these issues have put additional pressure on all staff working in schools in terms of demands of being accountable to both schools and outside agencies.The study also revealed that those occupying teaching roles in extended schools have been faced with new expectations placed on them. Cajkler et al (cited in Rochea and Tucker, 2007) emphasize that the safeguarding agenda pursued in extended school along with the creation of extended education, leisure, care and health opportunities make teachers to undertake different forms of work. As the â€Å"Lead Professional† they find themselves working more closely with families, especially when it comes to improving their access to services that are based on school premises.At the heart of Every Child Matters agenda lies recognition that all practitioners working with children will require new skills and knowledge to work more within multi-agency systems. This demand instigated another change in the roles performed by the practitioners as the policy agenda also emphasises the reform of training schemes. As Abbott and Hevey (2001: 180) point out, â€Å"the development of new and innovatory ways of working will ‘require something more than benign cooperation across existing professions†.The authors go on to argue that the development of a new children’s workforce has put forward the need for flexibility in approach and a sharing of values and attitudes tha t had been advocated much earlier in the Rumbold Report (DES, 1990). Indeed, the Every Child Matters agenda implies that all those working with children will require knowledge and skills in six wide areas of expertise, which is referred to as the Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the children’s workforce.The areas of expertise include: the development of effective communication skills; an understanding of child development; promoting children’s welfare; supporting transitions; multi-agency working; sharing of information (DfES, 2005). Advocates of the ‘common core’ specifically argue that the roles and responsibilities outlined within the Every Child Matters framework require individuals and groups to develop such a range of skills and knowledge in order to increase their ability to work across professional boundaries (Tucker et al. , 2002).Along with the demand related to the new training schemes, the Every Child Matters agenda also challenges the p ractitioners to meet new requirements of OfSTED inspections, which require the practitioners to report the way they are meeting the â€Å"five outcomes†. Personal experiences as well as discussions with the professionals show that, in some ways, the delivery of the Every Child Matters agenda has been transformed from a framework of aspiration to one where evidence is apprehensively sought in relation to specific targets against each outcome.The paper so far has attempted to review and critically analyse the Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003) framework and to discuss the impact of Every Child Matters agenda on a role of practitioners within educational settings. One of the key intentions has been to provide a brief overview of the main issues of the Every Child Matters agenda, an agenda profoundly influenced by a consistent failure to safeguard and protect children and young people and, therefore, promote their welfare.Specific areas concerned with multi-agency approach, the dev elopment of extended schools and workforce training and OfSTED issues have been reviewed to demonstrate the scope and complexity of the changes in the roles of practitioners working with children. The impact of Every Child Matters certainly appears to be influential in terms of the way it has been transforming structures and processes at both the national and local levels.Every Child Matters has provided a framework for shaping practice, specifically in relation to multi-agency multi-disciplinary approach and the expectations of professionals within educational settings to improve the quality and outcomes of safeguarding children. The study also suggests that, notwithstanding efficiency or inadequacy of specific aspects of the framework, no all-embracing package has been devised, which proposes a perfect solution for safeguarding children and promoting their rights and participation.It seems unrealistic to expect a selected framework to offer ultimate solutions in the context of edu cational system in view of the fact that a wide variety of different initiatives and approaches continuously develop to meet new sociological, legislative and educational needs. Today children are seen as â€Å"social beings, active in the construction of their own realities and subjectivities and therefore potentially active in the construction and deconstruction of dominant ideologies† (Osler, 1998: 34). However, in the face of changes that ime brings into our society every day we must recognise that there is no objective truth about children; and there is no single, objective description of how we should protect and safeguard them. The process of developing the ideas of childhood is a continuous non-stop practice, which helps us to comprehend the children and their lives as they really are and in this way give the children's views a central role in our explorations and perceptions.

Fddi and Cddi

C H A P T E R 8 Chapter Goals †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Provide background information about FDDI technology. Explain how FDDI works. Describe the differences between FDDI and Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI). Describe how CDDI works. Fiber Distributed Data Interface Introduction The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps token-passing, dual-ring LAN using fiber-optic cable. FDDI is frequently used as high-speed backbone technology because of its support for high bandwidth and greater distances than copper. It should be noted that relatively recently, a related copper specification, called Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI), has emerged to provide 100-Mbps service over copper. CDDI is the implementation of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire. This chapter focuses mainly on FDDI specifications and operations, but it also provides a high-level overview of CDDI. FDDI uses dual-ring architecture with traffic on each ring flowing in opposite directions (called counter-rotating). The dual rings consist of a primary and a secondary ring. During normal operation, the primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. As will be discussed in detail later in this chapter, the primary purpose of the dual rings is to provide superior reliability and robustness. Figure 8-1 shows the counter-rotating primary and secondary FDDI rings. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 8-1 Chapter 8 FDDI Transmission Media Fiber Distributed Data Interface Figure 8-1 FDDI Uses Counter-Rotating Primary and Secondary Rings Primary Secondary FDDI Concentrator WAN Standards FDDI was developed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) X3T9. 5 standards committee in the mid-1980s. At the time, high-speed engineering workstations were beginning to tax the bandwidth of existing local-area networks (LANs) based on Ethernet and Token Ring. A new LAN media was needed that could easily support these workstations and their new distributed applications. At the same time, network reliability had become an increasingly important issue as system managers migrated mission-critical applications from large computers to networks. FDDI was developed to fill these needs. After completing the FDDI specification, ANSI submitted FDDI to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which created an international version of FDDI that is completely compatible with the ANSI standard version. FDDI Transmission Media FDDI uses optical fiber as the primary transmission medium, but it also can run over copper cabling. As mentioned earlier, FDDI over copper is referred to as Copper-Distributed Data Interface (CDDI). Optical fiber has several advantages over copper media. In particular, security, reliability, and performance all are enhanced with optical fiber media because fiber does not emit electrical signals. A physical medium that does emit electrical signals (copper) can be tapped and therefore would permit unauthorized access to the data that is transiting the medium. In addition, fiber is immune to electrical interference from radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Fiber historically has supported much higher bandwidth (throughput potential) than copper, although recent technological advances have made copper capable of transmitting at 100 Mbps. Finally, FDDI allows 2 km between stations using multimode fiber, and even longer distances using a single mode. FDDI defines two types of optical fiber: single-mode and multimode. A mode is a ray of light that enters the fiber at a particular angle. Multimode fiber uses LED as the light-generating device, while single-mode fiber generally uses lasers. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-2 ct840801 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI Specifications Multimode fiber allows multiple modes of light to propagate through the fiber. Because these modes of light enter the fiber at different angles, they will arrive at the end of the fiber at different times. This characteristic is known as modal dispersion. Modal dispersion limits the bandwidth and distances that can be accomplished using multimode fibers. For this reason, multimode fiber is generally used for connectivity within a building or a relatively geographically contained environment. Single-mode fiber allows only one mode of light to propagate through the fiber. Because only a single mode of light is used, modal dispersion is not present with single-mode fiber. Therefore, single-mode fiber is capable of delivering considerably higher performance connectivity over much larger distances, which is why it generally is used for connectivity between buildings and within environments that are more geographically dispersed. Figure 8-2 depicts single-mode fiber using a laser light source and multimode fiber using a light emitting diode (LED) light source. Figure 8-2 Light Sources Differ for Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers Laser light source Single mode Multimode LED light source ct840802 FDDI Specifications FDDI specifies the physical and media-access portions of the OSI reference model. FDDI is not actually a single specification, but it is a collection of four separate specifications, each with a specific function. Combined, these specifications have the capability to provide high-speed connectivity between upper-layer protocols such as TCP/IP and IPX, and media such as fiber-optic cabling. FDDI’s four specifications are the Media Access Control (MAC), Physical Layer Protocol (PHY), Physical-Medium Dependent (PMD), and Station Management (SMT) specifications. The MAC specification defines how the medium is accessed, including frame format, token handling, addressing, algorithms for calculating cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, and error-recovery mechanisms. The PHY specification defines data encoding/decoding procedures, clocking requirements, and framing, among other functions. The PMD specification defines the characteristics of the transmission medium, including fiber-optic links, power levels, bit-error rates, optical components, and connectors. The SMT specification defines FDDI station configuration, ring configuration, and ring control features, including station insertion and removal, initialization, fault isolation and recovery, scheduling, and statistics collection. FDDI is similar to IEEE 802. 3 Ethernet and IEEE 802. 5 Token Ring in its relationship with the OSI model. Its primary purpose is to provide connectivity between upper OSI layers of common protocols and the media used to connect network devices. Figure 8-3 illustrates the four FDDI specifications and their relationship to each other and to the IEEE-defined Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer. The LLC sublayer is a component of Layer 2, the MAC layer, of the OSI reference model. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 8-3 Chapter 8 FDDI Station-Attachment Types Fiber Distributed Data Interface Figure 8-3 FDDI Specifications Map to the OSI Hierarchical Model Logical link control Media access control FDDI standards Physical layer protocol Station management Physical layer medium ct840803 FDDI Station-Attachment Types One of the unique characteristics of FDDI is that multiple ways actually exist by which to connect FDDI devices. FDDI defines four types of devices: single-attachment station (SAS), dual-attachment station (DAS), single-attached concentrator (SAC), and dual-attached concentrator (DAC). An SAS attaches to only one ring (the primary) through a concentrator. One of the primary advantages of connecting devices with SAS attachments is that the devices will not have any effect on the FDDI ring if they are disconnected or powered off. Concentrators will be covered in more detail in the following discussion. Each FDDI DAS has two ports, designated A and B. These ports connect the DAS to the dual FDDI ring. Therefore, each port provides a connection for both the primary and the secondary rings. As you will see in the next section, devices using DAS connections will affect the rings if they are disconnected or powered off. Figure 8-4 shows FDDI DAS A and B ports with attachments to the primary and secondary rings. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-4 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI Fault Tolerance Figure 8-4 FDDI DAS Ports Attach to the Primary and Secondary Rings Primary Primary Port A Port B Secondary Secondary FDDI DAS An FDDI concentrator (also called a dual-attachment concentrator [DAC]) is the building block of an FDDI network. It attaches directly to both the primary and secondary rings and ensures that the failure or power-down of any SAS does not bring down the ring. This is particularly useful when PCs, or similar devices that are frequently powered on and off, connect to the ring. Figure 8-5 shows the ring attachments of an FDDI SAS, DAS, and concentrator. Figure 8-5 A Concentrator Attaches to Both the Primary and Secondary Rings FDDI Concentrator DAS SAS SAS FDDI Fault Tolerance FDDI provides a number of fault-tolerant features. In particular, FDDI’s dual-ring environment, the implementation of the optical bypass switch, and dual-homing support make FDDI a resilient media technology. ct840805 Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 ct840804 8-5 Chapter 8 FDDI Fault Tolerance Fiber Distributed Data Interface Dual Ring FDDI’s primary fault-tolerant feature is the dual ring. If a station on the dual ring fails or is powered down, or if the cable is damaged, the dual ring is automatically wrapped (doubled back onto itself) into a single ring. When the ring is wrapped, the dual-ring topology becomes a single-ring topology. Data continues to be transmitted on the FDDI ring without performance impact during the wrap condition. Figure 8-6 and Figure 8-7 illustrate the effect of a ring wrapping in FDDI. Figure 8-6 A Ring Recovers from a Station Failure by Wrapping Station 1 MAC B A Station 4 Ring wrap Ring wrap Station 2 A MAC B B MAC A A B Failed station Station 3 Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-6 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI Fault Tolerance Figure 8-7 A Ring also Wraps to Withstand a Cable Failure Station 1 MAC B A Station 4 Ring wrap Station 2 A MAC B B MAC A Failed wiring Ring wrap A B Station 3 When a single station fails, as shown in Figure 8-6, devices on either side of the failed (or powered-down) station wrap, forming a single ring. Network operation continues for the remaining stations on the ring. When a cable failure occurs, as shown in Figure 8-7, devices on either side of the cable fault wrap. Network operation continues for all stations. It should be noted that FDDI truly provides fault tolerance against a single failure only. When two or more failures occur, the FDDI ring segments into two or more independent rings that are incapable of communicating with each other. Optical Bypass Switch An optical bypass switch provides continuous dual-ring operation if a device on the dual ring fails. This is used both to prevent ring segmentation and to eliminate failed stations from the ring. The optical bypass switch performs this function using optical mirrors that pass light from the ring directly to the DAS device during normal operation. If a failure of the DAS device occurs, such as a power-off, the optical bypass switch will pass the light through itself by using internal mirrors and thereby will maintain the ring’s integrity. The benefit of this capability is that the ring will not enter a wrapped condition in case of a device failure. Figure 8-8 shows the functionality of an optical bypass switch in an FDDI network. When using the OB, you will notice a tremendous digression of your network as the packets are sent through the OB unit. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 ct840807 MAC 8-7 Chapter 8 FDDI Fault Tolerance Fiber Distributed Data Interface Figure 8-8 The Optical Bypass Switch Uses Internal Mirrors to Maintain a Network Station 1 Station 1 B A B A Failed station Optical bypass switch â€Å"normal configuration† Station 4 A B Optical bypass switch â€Å"bypassed configuration† Ring does not wrap Station 2 A B Station 2 A B Station 4 A B A B A B Station 3 Station 3 Dual Homing Critical devices, such as routers or mainframe hosts, can use a fault-tolerant technique called dual homing to provide additional redundancy and to help guarantee operation. In dual-homing situations, the critical device is attached to two concentrators. Figure 8-9 shows a dual-homed configuration for devices such as file servers and routers. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-8 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI Frame Format Figure 8-9 A Dual-Homed Configuration Guarantees Operation Concentrator Concentrator File servers Routers One pair of concentrator links is declared the active link; the other pair is declared passive. The passive link stays in backup mode until the primary link (or the concentrator to which it is attached) is determined to have failed. When this occurs, the passive link automatically activates. FDDI Frame Format The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token Ring frame. This is one of the areas in which FDDI borrows heavily from earlier LAN technologies, such as Token Ring. FDDI frames can be as large as 4,500 bytes. Figure 8-10 shows the frame format of an FDDI data frame and token. Figure 8-10 The FDDI Frame Is Similar to That of a Token Ring Frame Data frame Preamble Start delimiter Frame control Destination address Source address ct840809 Data FCS End delimiter Frame status Token Preamble Start delimiter Frame control End delimiter FDDI Frame Fields The following descriptions summarize the FDDI data frame and token fields illustrated in Figure 8-10. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 8-9 Chapter 8 Copper Distributed Data Interface Fiber Distributed Data Interface †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Preamble—Gives a unique sequence that prepares each station for an upcoming frame. Start delimiter—Indicates the beginning of a frame by employing a signaling pattern that differentiates it from the rest of the frame. Frame control—Indicates the size of the address fields and whether the frame contains asynchronous or synchronous data, among other control information. Destination address—Contains a unicast (singular), multicast (group), or broadcast (every station) address. As with Ethernet and Token Ring addresses, FDDI destination addresses are 6 bytes long. Source address—Identifies the single station that sent the frame. As with Ethernet and Token Ring addresses, FDDI source addresses are 6 bytes long. Data—Contains either information destined for an upper-layer protocol or control information. Frame check sequence (FCS)—Is filed by the source station with a calculated cyclic redundancy check value dependent on frame contents (as with Token Ring and Ethernet). The destination address recalculates the value to determine whether the frame was damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded. End delimiter—Contains unique symbols; cannot be data symbols that indicate the end of the frame. Frame status—Allows the source station to determine whether an error occurred; identifies whether the frame was recognized and copied by a receiving station. †¢ †¢ Copper Distributed Data Interface Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI) is the implementation of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire. Like FDDI, CDDI provides data rates of 100 Mbps and uses dual-ring architecture to provide redundancy. CDDI supports distances of about 100 meters from desktop to concentrator. CDDI is defined by the ANSI X3T9. 5 Committee. The CDDI standard is officially named the Twisted-Pair Physical Medium-Dependent (TP-PMD) standard. It is also referred to as the Twisted-Pair Distributed Data Interface (TP-DDI), consistent with the term Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). CDDI is consistent with the physical and media-access control layers defined by the ANSI standard. The ANSI standard recognizes only two types of cables for CDDI: shielded twisted pair (STP) and unshielded twisted pair (UTP). STP cabling has 150-ohm impedance and adheres to EIA/TIA 568 (IBM Type 1) specifications. UTP is data-grade cabling (Category 5) consisting of four unshielded pairs using tight-pair twists and specially developed insulating polymers in plastic jackets adhering to EIA/TIA 568B specifications. Figure 8-11 illustrates the CDDI TP-PMD specification in relation to the remaining FDDI specifications. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-10 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface Summary Figure 8-11 CDDI TP-PMD and FDDI Specifications Adhere to Different Standards FDDI Media Access Control (MAC) FDDI physical layer (PHY) FDDI Station Management (SMT) Twisted-pair wire PMD Single-mode fiber PMD Multimode fiber PMD Specification for CDDI Summary The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps token-passing, dual-ring LAN architecture using fiber-optic cable. FDDI is frequently implemented as a high-speed backbone technology because of its support for high bandwidth and greater distances than copper. Review Questions Q—What are the benefits of using FDDI instead of CDDI? A—Longer distance, no RFI, no EFI. Q—What role does the DAC play in the FDDI network? A—The concentrator is a dual-attachment station device and ensures that when single-attachment station devices—such as PCs—are turned off, they do not interrupt the network ring. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 ct840811 8-11 Chapter 8 Review Questions Fiber Distributed Data Interface Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-12 1-58705-001-3